Common Health and Medical Questions and Answers. This health blog contains the questions that I've been most often asked by the patient facing surgery, his immediate family or concerned relatives.
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Can cytology detect cancer? What is cytology and its importance?
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What is cytology?
Cytology is that branch of medicine which deals with the formation, structure, and function of cells. When it is mentioned in the area of diagnosis for cancer, it is sometimes called exfoliative cytology and refers to the technique of examining cells which have been normally shed or which are scraped from living tissue. The cells, which cannot be seen by the naked eye, are examined under the microscope, usually by a pathologist or a technician trained to know whether the cells look normal or not.
• Vaginal pool aspiration or endometrial aspiration to detect uterine cancer
• Sputum tests to detect lung cancer
• Urine sediment tests to detect cancer ofthe urinary tract, especially bladder
• Scrapings from the mouth to detect oral cancer
• Cell samples from the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, or duodenum
• Fluid tests from areas such as breasts, spinal cord, thyroid, prostate
• Bone marrow tests
What is Cytology ? ( Clear & Complete Overview )
How are cytological exams performed?
A little fluid taken from the organ either from cells which have been sloughed off, cells which have been scraped off, or body fluid which has been taken by needle is spread on a glass slide. The fluid is stained with dyes and examined through a microscope. When cancer cells are present in the fluid, they can usually be spotted. The cytological exam of cells is based on the fact that cells on the surface of an organ are constantly being shed and falling off. In some places, these cells, both malignant and benign, can be scooped up in the normal fluid secretions. There are structural differences between the cancer cells and benign cells which can be seen under the microscope. The smear technique was first used in the Pap test. Today the new fiberoptic instruments make it possible to obtain smears from less accessible organs such as the stomach and the pancreas.
Can a final diagnosis of cancer be made with a smear test?
Most smear tests are used for screening to detect abnormal cells. Most doctors do not feel that the smear can be used to provide the final diagnosis of cancer. The smear consists only of individual scattered cells, sometimes clusters of them. A smear diagnosis gives strong evidence of the presence of cancer, but biopsy is still held to be essential for a final decision.
What are the advantages of the smear method?
There are several. Some smears, such as the kind used in the Pap test, can be done easily and cheaply for testing large groups for cancer. Some smears, like those for the Pap test and the lung sputum test, can detect the presence of cancer before any signs or symptoms appear. And in hardto reach areas such as the stomach, exfoliate cytology smears can provide evidence of the presence of cancer without the need for an operation.
Does the Pap test detect any cancers other than cervical?
The Pap test is approximately 97 percent successful in detecting cervical cancer; the cervix is the opening to the uterus and is where most cancers involving the uterus and female genitals begin. However, the Pap test will show only about 50 percent of cancers of the uterine lining (endometrium), and is of little or no value in detecting cancers of the ovary.
What is malignant melanoma? Malignant melanoma is a less common form of skin cancer . When diagnosed early, it is easily cured. But if it is not found soon enough, it can be very difficult to treat. It is dangerous because, unlike the other skin cancers, it mestastasizes early and spreads quickly. It is one of the more uncontrollable cancers. The cell involved is the melanocyte, the cell which produces melanin, the dark protective pigment of the skin . What is the difference between an ordinary mole and melanoma? An ordinary mole is evenly colored, and either brown, tan or black. It may be flat or raised. It is round or oval and its edges are sharply defined. An ordinary mole is usually less than 6 millimeters in diameter about the size of a pencil eraser. Ordinary moles may be present at birth. Sometimes several appear at the same time, usually on areas of the skin which have been exposed to the sun. Once the mole develops, it usually stays the same size, shape and color for ma
Yes. After prostatectomy , the ability to ejaculate through the penis is lost. What happens is that ejaculation occurs but it is directed backward into the bladder , rather than forward through the urethra. The semen remains in the bladder until urination, and is carried out via that route. The man who ejaculates in this manner has the very same sensations during sex that he had before except that there is no discharge through the penis. Can a total prostatectomy be done without impairing the ability to have an erection? Dr. Patrick C. Walsh, a surgeon at Johns Hopkins University Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, has developed a way of removing the prostate which preserves potency by bypassing the intricate nerve branches of the pelvic plexus. This technique is now being adopted by many surgeons for patients with early stage prostate cancer. Until the advent of this type of surgery, 90 percent of those having prostatectomies lost their sexual ability, and 2 to 5 percent became in
Fractures of the Ankle How do ankle fractures occur? Ankle fractures are caused by a forceful and excessive twisting of the ankle , either in or out. The twist comes from stumbling, catching the foot in a crevice, or falling, in which the weight of the body is unevenly distributed. Many skiers suffer fractured ankles, and some of the best treatments have been evolved by surgeons practicing near ski slopes. The stress and strain factors in the ankle are so uniform that the pattern of the injury, dislocation and deformity is specific. Many varieties of ankle fractures are grouped together under the name of Pott's fracture. What shall I do, Doctor? I'm at a gas station phone and my wife just fell down and twisted her ankle. If it is painful and she can't walk, it may be a fracture. Don't manipulate it, don't pull it. Just wrap a towel or pillow around it and take her to a hospital for an X ray. It is best if she does not walk. You can carry her in a chair.
What is a bone marrow transplant? Bone marrow transplantation is an approach used over the past 10 years for the treatment of acute leukemia and lymphoma. It is a complex procedure and should be undertaken only by physicians with the experience and resources needed to get the best results. When is a bone marrow transplant used? It may be used in some cases of several types of diseases aplastic anemia (when patients do not have enough red cells to carry oxygen, enough white cells to fight bacteria, or enough platelets to help clotting), in some types of acute and chronic leukemia, for some lymphomas, for severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome, and for certain inherited blood disorders such as thalassemia. A bone marrow transplant replaces a patient's abnormal or diseased marrow with healthy marrow from a donor. Can any leukemia patient undergo a bone marrow transplantation? No. When patients and doctors consider the possibility of treatment with a bone marrow transpl
Head Injuries The brain is man's most vital possession. Recent details about organ transplants have centered on the definition of death. These discussions have emphasized that, even though the heart may continue to beat, the individual is considered dead if there is no brain activity. Nature provides a thick scalp and skull to protect the brain and further encloses it in envelopes called the meninges. Some injuries to the head may be trivial, others may be fatal. The surgeon who is called upon to evaluate the patient with a head injury tackles the problem from within out. Damage to the brain and its envelope is most important; injury to the skull is of concern in only some instances. Bleeding from the scalp is the most apparent manifestation of injury but is the least important. Survival and the late effects of a head injury depend on the extent of the injury to the brain and not to its coverings. The best possible supportive medical crre is provided to those who will reco
What kinds of cancers are found in the mouth? The cancers of the mouth (oral cavity) include the lip, tongue, floor of the mouth, cheeks (buccal mucosa), and gums (gingivae). Who is at high risk to get cancer of the mouth? This cancer is predominantly found in men between the ages of 60 and 70. People who are heavy smokers (more than a pack a day), drink alcohol heavily, are over 45, and have a family history of this kind of cancer are at a higher risk to develop cancers of the oral cavity, the mouth, and the throat. Is cancer of the mouth easy to detect? Yes, it is usually discovered early, since it can be seen easily. White patches ( leukoplakia ), velvety red spots (erythroplasia), or dark patches are symptoms which should be seen by a doctor, who will do a biopsy of them. Many cancers of the mouth are first discovered by dentists. What are the symptoms of oral cancer? The warning signs of oral cancer are as follows: • A lump in the cheek that can be felt with the
Would the doctor prescribe estrogen if my ovaries were removed because of cancer? No. If there is any sign of a cancerous condition, estrogen would probably not be prescribed. What is the estrogen controversy? Estrogen is a female hormone produced by the ovaries. Scientists have also developed chemical estrogen. Both regulate the development of female sexual characteristics. For a number of years, estrogens have been prescribed for women during and after menopause to make up for the decline in this hormone normally produced by the ovaries. Estrogen has been found helpful in relieving symptoms associated with menopause, such as hot flashes, in overcoming drying of vaginal tissues and in retarding osteoporosis (thinning of bones). However, the use of estrogen during and after menopause has been linked to an increase in endometrial cancer (cancer of the lining of the uterus), and it may be linked to other cancers as well. At this time,scientists do not agree about whether t
Chest Injuries The chest consists of the bony thorax and the organs that lie within it. The thorax comprises twelve ribs on each side of the chest, each of which attaches to the bony spine in the back and to the chest bone ( sternum ) in front. Each chest cavity has a smooth delicate lining ( pleura ) within which the lung rhythmically expands and deflates. The diaphragm is the dome shaped muscle that seals off the lower end of the chest from the abdomen. Its upand down motion provides the bellows action for the expansion of the lungs that fills them with air. The function of the lungs is to provide ventilation. Air is moved in to provide oxygen, and carbon dioxide is moved out as a waste product. The heart is in its own envelope in the center of the chest, behind the breastbone. The heart functions solely as a pump. It circulates the blood into the lung for oxygenation and delivers oxygenated blood to the entire body. The chest also harbors the large blood vessels and the br
Hodgkin's Disease and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma What are lymphomas? Lymphomas are cancers that affect the white blood cells of the immune system. They are characterized by the abnormal growth of lymphocytes, the infection fighting cells in the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. The tonsils, stomach, small intestine, and skin may also be affected. Lymphomas are usually classified as Hodgkin's disease, the most common form, or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. There are also other rare forms of the disease, such as mycosis fungoides, a primary skin lymphoma. Burkitt's lymphoma , rare in most of the world, is the most common childhood cancer in central Africa and is one of the fastest growing human cancers. What is the role of the lymph system in the body? The lymph system is made up of nodes and thin walled tubelike veins along which the nodes lie. Its job is to help fight diseases and infection, and it serves as part of the body's drainage system. Lymph nodes are
Hand Injuries Most of us earn our living with our hands. The goal of the treatment of hand injuries is maximum preservation of function. In terms of possible permanent disability, there is no minor surgery in this area. The magnitude of the problem is apparent in the frequency with which it appears in the statistics of the Workmen's Compensation Board and insurance companies. The best treatment is prevention. One must be constantly alert to the possibility of punctures, door slams, burns, pressure injuries, and the perverse potential of certain mechanical tools. Failing this, early treatment to prevent infection is best. There are relatively clearly defined methods of managing various types of injury. The patient can describe the site of the injury by indicating its relation to the various creases in the palm or to the knuckles and nails on the back of the hand. Physicians can treat all hand and finger injuries under some form of nerve blocking anesthesia, so the patient feels
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